Mid-face Morphometrics and Sexual Dimorphism: A Population Specific Study from Southwestern Nigeria
Idowu Elijah Adefisan1*, Effiong Edet Iboro2, Ologunye David Adebori1
1 Department of Anatomy, University of Medical Science Ondo, Nigeria
2 Department of Anatomy, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
* Corresponding author: iadefisan@unimed.edu.ng
Abstract
This study investigates mid-face morphometrics and sexual dimorphism in a Yoruba population from southwestern Nigeria. A total of 300 participants (112 males, 188 females) aged 16-55 years were examined. Nine mid-facial measurements were taken using standardized anthropometric techniques. Independent samples t-tests revealed significant sexual dimorphism in most variables, with males generally exhibiting larger dimensions. However, nasal height and upper facial height showed no significant differences between sexes. A discriminant function analysis (DFA) was performed to assess the potential for sex determination using these measurements. The DFA model achieved a classification accuracy of 75.3%, with five key variables (left ear width, facial width, nasal width, right ear width, and nasal height) identified as significant discriminators. This accuracy is comparable to similar studies in other populations, suggesting the model’s potential utility in forensic applications. The study provides valuable population-specific data on mid-face morphometrics for the Yoruba ethnic group, contributing to the fields of forensic anthropology, plastic surgery, and biometrics. The findings highlight the importance of considering population-specific variations in facial morphology and offer a foundation for future research in facial anthropometry and its applications.
Keywords: Mid-face, Morphometrics, Sexual Dimorphism Southwestern, Nigeria.
Introduction
The mid-face is the central part of the face that includes the upper lip and lower eyelids. It comprises the maxilla, zygomatic bones, nasal bones, and soft tissues. The maxilla supports teeth and surrounding structures, whereas the zygomatic bones give the midface its distinct shape. The nasal bones keep the nose in shape and provide support for cartilage. The mid-face also includes muscles, fat pads, and skin, which contribute to its appearance and function (Goldstein & Ransom, 2011; Kühnel & Reichert, 2015; Foust et al., 2023; Rao et al., 2023). The mid-face is important from both an aesthetic and functional perspective. Medical specialties, such as plastic surgery, orthodontics, and anthropology, depend on understanding of the mid-face’s anatomy (Yaremchuk, 2019, Michelotti et al., 2022, Samizadeh, 2024).
The mid-face plays a crucial role in facial aesthetics due to its central location and substantial impact on overall facial harmony (Narurkar et al., 2016; Londono et al., 2024). It is responsible for several key features that contribute to facial attractiveness, including the position of the eyes, the projection of the cheekbones, and the shape of the nose (Goldstein & Ransom, 2011; Lipko-Godlewska et al., 202; Fillers & Ho, 2023). These features are primarily influenced by the underlying bony structures and soft tissues of the mid-face (Nilendu, 2020).
A well-defined mid-face with prominent cheekbones is frequently associated with attractiveness and is often sought after by individuals pursuing cosmetic enhancements (Linkov et al., 2017; Travieso & Steinbacher, 2019; Fillers & Ho, 2023). The position of the eyes, also located in the mid-face region, significantly influences facial aesthetics. Proper alignment and symmetry of the eyes contribute to a balanced and aesthetically pleasing facial appearance (Reid, 2015; Samizadeh, 2024). The mid-face also exerts a considerable influence on the shape and aesthetics of the nose. The nasal bones, which support the nasal cartilage, play a pivotal role in determining the nose’s height and width. This influence of the mid-face on nasal aesthetics is particularly evident in rhinoplasty procedures (Kühnel & Reichert, 2015; Ascha et al., 2018).
Extant literature indicates that the mid-face exhibits sexual dimorphism, with distinct features that differ between sexes. These differences can be attributed to various factors, including hormonal influences and evolutionary adaptations (Kagian et al., 2008; Kreutzer & Aebischer, 2015; Kanavakis et al., 2021; Ridel et al., 2024). The sexual dimorphism in mid-facial structures is a significant aspect of facial aesthetics and plays a crucial role in sex identification. In general, males tend to have a more prominent and angular mid-face compared to females (Beugre et al., 2017; Devanna et al., 2017). This is often characterized by a stronger projection of the cheekbones, a wider and more robust maxilla, and a more prominent brow ridge (Sharma et al., 2014; de Maio, 2015; Avelar et al., 2017; Balaji & Balaji, 2019). On the other hand, females typically have a softer and more rounded mid-face, with less pronounced features (Owsley et al., 2008; Windhager et al., 2011; Corduff et al., 2020). These differences contribute to the perception of facial femininity and masculinity.
The mid-facial region exhibits variations that are specific to populations, shaped by a confluence of genetic, environmental, and evolutionary determinants (Siebert & Swindler, 2002; Cui & Leclercq, 2017; Lacruz et al., 2019). Anthropometry, which entails the systematic quantification and examination of human bodily dimensions, plays a pivotal role in the investigation of these disparities. Through the quantification of mid-facial attributes, scholars are equipped to discern and juxtapose features across distinct geographical locales, thereby facilitating a deeper comprehension of population heterogeneity (Evteev et al., 2014; Evteev et al., 2017; Jilani et al., 2018; Wilke et al., 2023; Utkualp & Ercan, 2015; Dianat et al., 2018; Steckel, 2024). This methodological approach is fundamental to a variety of disciplines, including orthodontics (Guo et al., 2012), plastic surgery (Afaq et al., 2023), anthropology (Johnson et al., 2023; Thakur & Sehrawat, 2023), sleep medicine (Chen et al., 2022, 2023), prosthodontics (Ariani et al., 2013), and biometrics (Wilkinson, 2015), where accurate measurements are instrumental in informing treatment protocols and augmenting scientific knowledge.
Mid-face anthropometry plays a crucial role across medical and scientific disciplines, yet comprehensive morphometric data remain scarce for many populations, including Southwestern Nigeria. This study aims to fill this gap by establishing baseline mid-face measurements for this population. The data will enrich knowledge of population-specific facial morphology and support applications in orthodontics, plastic surgery, anthropology, sleep medicine, prosthodontics, and biometrics, enhancing accuracy in procedures and advancing understanding of facial diversity.
Materials and methods
Study Design/ Sample
This prospective cross-sectional study was carried out on 300 students (112 males and 188 females) of the University of Medical Sciences, Ondo state, Nigeria within the age range of 16 – 55 took part in the study. The study participants are all the students and staff of the University of Medical Sciences Ondo State belonging to the Yoruba ethnic group of Nigeria.
Anthropometric Data Collection
A semi-structured questionnaire was developed for the study and administered to the participants for the purpose of collecting socio-demographic data. Direct measurements were carried out on each participant after the reception of a signed informed consent letter.
Eight craniofacial variables were measured on each subject. Measurements were taken in accordance with the methods suggested by Martin and Saller, (1957).
Upper Facial Height (UFH): Upper facial height is the measurement of the face from the Glabella to Subnasale.
Nasal Height (NH): Nasal height is the measurement of the face from the Nasion to Subnasale.
Nasal Width (NW): Nasal width is the measurement of the face to determine the distance between two alare to alare.
Facial Width (FW): Facial width is the measurement of the face to determine the distance between two zygon.
Ear Length (EL): Ear length is the measurement of the ear from superaurale to subaurale.
Ear Width (EW): Ear width is the measurement of the ear from preaurale to postaurale.
Inner-Canthal Distance (ICD): Inner-canthal distance is measurement of the eye from the medial canthus of one eye to the medial canthus of the other eye.
Outer-Canthal Distance (OCD): Outer-canthal distance is the measurement of the lateral angle of the left eye to the lateral angle of the right eye.
Equipment
These variables were measured with a spreading caliper (Biotech Ltd., Agra, India) and digital vernier caliper (Microtech, Ukraine, precision, ± 0.01 mm).
Statistics
Data analysis was carried out using Microsoft excel 2019 and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM® SPSS version 25.0, Armonk, New York, USA). The significance criterion was set at 95%; hence p 0.05 was significant. Continuous variables were expressed as Means SD (standard deviation). Sex differences were established using the independent sample t-test and stepwise discriminant function analysis (DFA) was used to quantify sexual dimorphism using variables that significantly contributed to mid facial variability. Leave-One-Out Cross-Validation was employed to avoid over fitting of the DFA model.
Ethical considerations
Ethical approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee at the University of Medical Science, Ondo, Nigeria with ethical approval number: NHREC/TR/UNIMED-HREC- Ondo St/22/06/21. Informed consent forms were provided to the volunteers or their guardians for those below 18years of age; and those who consented and satisfied the inclusion criteria were invited for the study. Individuals were deemed unsuitable for the study if their parents, up to the second filial generation, were not of the Yoruba ethnic group of southwestern Nigeria, if they presented with visible craniofacial or skeletal dysmorphology, or if they exhibited obvious signs of metabolic diseases such as obesity.
Results
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and independent samples t-test results for various midface variables, comparing measurements between male (n = 112) and female (n = 188) participants. The variables analyzed include inner canthal distance (ICD), outer canthal distance (OCD), right ear length (REL), right ear width (REW), left ear width (LEW), nasal height (NH), nasal width (NW), facial width (FW), and upper facial height (UFH).
Statistically significant differences (p < .05) between males and females were observed for most variables, with males generally exhibiting larger measurements. However, no significant differences were found for nasal height (p =0 .351) and upper facial height (p = 0.574). These results suggest the presence of sexual dimorphism in several midface features among the study participants.
Discriminant analysis
Table 2: Variables contributing to the stepwise discriminant function analysis
The eigenvalue of 0.392 indicates moderate discriminating power. The canonical correlation of 0.530 suggests a moderate relationship between the discriminant scores and group membership. The Wilks’ Lambda value of 0.719 indicates that 28.1% (1 – 0.719) of the variance in the dependent variable is explained by group differences. The significant chi-square value (p0.001) confirms that the function significantly differentiates between the groups. The standardized coefficients indicate the relative contribution of each variable to the discriminant function. Positive coefficients contribute positively to group discrimination, while negative coefficients contribute negatively. These coefficients can be used to construct the discriminant function equation for classifying new cases. Additionally, unstandardized coefficients can be used for this purpose.
Table 4: Functions at the group centroids depicting average discriminant scores in males and females
Positive values are associated with male cohorts, and negative values are associated with group female cohorts; or scores above the sectioning point are most likely males, and scores below the sectioning points are most likely female.
The findings from the stepwise discriminant function analysis reveal notable classification accuracy in predicting sex based on mid-face measurements. In the original analysis, 78.6% of males and 73.4% of females were correctly classified. Cross-validation yielded slightly lower accuracy, with 75.9% for males and 71.8% for females.
Discussion
This study examined sexual dimorphism in the mid-face among 300 individuals (112 males, 188 females) from the Yoruba ethnic group of southwestern Nigeria. Our findings revealed significant sexual differences in most of the examined variables, highlighting the importance of considering sex-specific variations in facial morphology. Additionally, we identified specific mid-face measurements that exhibited the most pronounced differences between males and females, shedding light on potential markers for sexual dimorphism in the study population.
The results of our independent samples t-tests (Table 1) demonstrate significant sexual dimorphism in the majority of mid-face variables examined. Males consistently exhibited larger measurements than females in inner canthal distance (ICD), outer canthal distance (OCD), right ear length (REL), right and left ear width (REW, LEW), nasal width (NW), and facial width (FW). These findings align with previous studies that have reported larger craniofacial dimensions in males compared to females (Agnihotri et al., 2011; Jilani et al., 2018; Cappella et al., 2020; Hodges-Simeon et al., 2021; Velemínská et al., 2012; Herrerín & Carmenate, 2022; Toneva et al., 2022; Christy et al., 2023; Goli et al., 2023; Syutkina et al., 2023). The observed variations between male and female mid-facial measurements, as shown in the study findings, likely stem from a mix of inherited traits (Devanna et al., 2020; Vishwakarma et al., 2024), hormone influences (Roosenboom et al., 2018), and external environmental elements (Delwing et al., 2012; Syutkina et al., 2023).
Interestingly, no significant differences were found between sexes in nasal height (NH) or upper facial height (UFH). This lack of dimorphism in vertical facial measurements implies that sexual differences in the midface region are more noticeable in horizontal dimensions. This finding has been reported in several previous population-based studies, including Anand et al. (2015) among Indians in the Moradabad population, Kramer et al. (2012) in white Europeans, Diouf et al. (2014) in young adults from Pakistan, Hierl et al. (2021) in a Caucasian population, Danel et al. (2018) in Brazilian, Colombian, Cameroonian, and Czech populations, and Syutkina et al. (2023) in an East Slavonic population. The data derived from this study could have an impact on facial reconstruction techniques and inform aesthetic considerations in facial surgery.
Sexual dimorphism is crucial in forensic anthropology. It plays a significant role in identifying the biological sex of human skeletal remains, which is essential for establishing the identity of unknown individuals in forensic investigations (Lestrel et al., 2011; Sagana & Mohanraj, 2019; Boucherie et al., 2022). This study carried out a stepwise discriminant function analysis (DFA) of the mid-facial variables to identify those that sufficiently discriminate sex within the population. The model successfully classified 75.3% of the original cases and 73.3% of the cross-validated cases, indicating good predictive accuracy. Five key variables (left ear width, facial width, nasal width, right ear width, and nasal height) were identified as significant discriminators between sexes. The upper facial height, however, did not contribute significantly to sex discrimination (p=0.574).
Our DFA model’s 75.3% classification accuracy is in line with results from other populations. Sarkar and Mukhopadhyay obtained 68.5% accuracy in a population of east India, while Ali et al. reported 74.5% accuracy in Brokpas & Purigpas of Ladakh. Adamu et al. found a 70.3% accuracy rate in the Hausa population of Kano state, Nigeria. In a Brazilian population, Capp et al. reported 82-90% accuracy. Sezgin and Karadayi reported 80.5% accuracy in a Turkish population, and Marinescu et al. reported 83.5% accuracy in a Romanian population. These comparisons indicate that our model’s performance falls within the range of previously published studies, with minor variations that may be attributed to population-specific characteristics.
While the present study offers significant contributions to the understanding of sexual dimorphism and mid-face morphometrics within the Yoruba demographic of southwestern Nigeria, it is imperative to recognize several inherent limitations. Initially, the research was restricted to a singular ethnic cohort, which may constrain the applicability of the results to alternative populations or ethnicities. Furthermore, although the sample size was deemed sufficient for the scope of this study, augmenting it in subsequent inquiries could enhance both statistical power and the reliability of the findings. Moreover, the dependence on manual anthropometric assessments introduces a potential for observer bias, notwithstanding efforts aimed at standardizing the methodologies for data collection.
Future research endeavours could effectively mitigate these limitations by incorporating a more heterogeneous array of populations to investigate inter-ethnic and cross-regional disparities in mid-face morphometrics. Additionally, the utilization of advanced imaging modalities such as 3D scanning or cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) could significantly refine the accuracy of measurements and diminish the likelihood of observer bias. Longitudinal investigations that assess variations in mid-face morphology over time, in conjunction with age and environmental influences, could yield profound insights into the dynamics of craniofacial architecture. Lastly, the integration of genetic and hormonal data may elucidate the fundamental factors that underlie sexual dimorphism in mid-face structures, thereby furthering applications in forensic and medical fields.
Conclusion
This study investigates sexual dimorphism and mid-face morphometrics in a Yoruba population in southwest Nigeria. Mid-facial measurements show significant sexual dimorphism, with males typically having larger dimensions than females. The discriminant function analysis model achieved a classification accuracy of 75.3%, providing a targeted set of measurements for future use in forensic anthropology and related disciplines. Five key variables were found to be significant discriminators between the sexes: left ear width, facial width, nasal width, right ear width, and nasal height. Interestingly, nasal height and upper facial height did not exhibit any discernible sexual dimorphism, suggesting that vertical facial dimensions may be less sexually dimorphic in this population. The generated population-specific data has implications for forensic applications, plastic and reconstructive surgery, anthropological research, and biometric applications.
Acknowledgments
We sincerely appreciate the study participants for taking time out to participate in our study.
Financial disclosure and conflict of interest
The authors assert that they have no conflict of interest to declare. We did not receive any funding for this study.
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Received: July 25th, 2024;
Accepted: December 18th, 2024 ;
Online first: December 20th, 2024;
Published: July 15th, 2025.
Copyright: © 2024 Adefisan et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
