Consanguinity in twenty-first century India: A review
Mir Azad Kalam1*, Saptamita Pal2
1 Narasinha Dutt College, Howrah, India
2 University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
* Corresponding author: imirazad@gmail.com
Abstract
Consanguineous marriage, which involves the union of close biological relatives, is a global practice, including in India. Consanguineous marriage and its effect remained an interest to the geneticists, medical and social scientists. Numerous studies have been conducted to delve into these aspects of consanguinity. This review paper seeks to examine various dimensions of consanguinity in twenty-first-century India. We conducted thorough searches on PUBMED, Web of Knowledge, Google Scholar, and JSTOR specifically for articles on consanguinity in India since 2001. It was observed that the rate of consanguinity was approximately 10.0% which varies state-wise, and the trend indicates a decrease. Socio-demographic characteristics such as age at marriage, educational attainments, place of residence, and economic condition are the major contributing factors. Religious beliefs, especially Islamic views, significantly affect the prevalence of consanguineous marriage. Many studies reveal that consanguinity helps to lower dowry, maintain family peace, and increase social security within groups. Recent studies reveal that consanguinity still affects reproductive outcomes and increases congenital and medical disorders, while the inclusion of external factors reduces the effect of consanguinity. Studies show consanguinity reduces the overall strength of a population and increases the selection pressure within it. This review helps in understanding the effects of consanguinity among concerned couples and family members and encourages policymakers to motivate them to seek genetic counselling for a better future.
Keywords: Consanguinity, Factors, Disorders, Reproductive Outcome, Change, India.
Introduction
Consanguineous marriage is an important social phenomenon, and is found to be very important to the geneticists, medical and social scientists because of its effect on reproductive behaviour, congenital malformations, medical disorder, health problems among newborn babies as well as social importance (Banerjee & Roy, 2002; Bittles & Black, 2010; Amudha et al. 2005; McGregor et al. 2010; Ashraf et al. 2010). Several studies have been conducted to gain insight into family relations in consanguineous marriages and attitudes and intergenerational changes in consanguinity (Mukherjee et al. 2007; Kalam et al. 2017). This study aims to present a detailed review of consanguineous marriage in twenty first century India.
Definition
Consanguineous marriage is the marriage between biological relatives, having at least one common ancestor (Bittles, 2012). It can be categorized by the degree of relationship between spouses such as first cousins paternal or maternal side, second cousins, third cousins, uncle–niece or distant relations (Bittles, 2012).
Methods
We conducted rigours search on PUBMED, Web of Knowledge, Google Scholar, and JSTOR specifically for articles on consanguinity in India. Articles on consanguinity types, prevalence, determinants, pregnancy, reproduction, medical disorders, congenital defects, and recent changes were researched with specific filters for our areas of interest. We meticulously filtered and searched all relevant publications from 2001 up to the 2024. A few older references were used because of their importance in relation to consanguinity. Majority of the publications were found in journals, online articles as well as in book chapters. Many of the studies were conducted on national-level data, and others were based on local community-level data. All the articles were checked carefully.
Each search engine had a different citation style prepared, such as APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, and Vancouver. The reference management software Mendeley was used for reference management in the text.
Prevalence of consanguineous marriage
Consanguineous marriage is practiced worldwide in varying degrees. Bittles & Black (2010) observed that the prevalence of consanguineous marriage is around 10%. Banerjee & Roy (2002) observed that one out of six marriages were consanguineous marriage in India. Using national level data (NFHS-4 Data), Sharma et al. (2020) found that consanguineous marriage was around 10.0%. Sharma et al. (2020) also observed regional variation in the prevalence of consanguineous marriage in different regions of India, such as in North (13.1%), Central (22.0%), Eastern (23.4%), North-east (3.1%), Western (14.8%), and South (23.6%). In multicultural habitat like India, consanguineous marriage varies depending on cultural practice and community level (Reddy et al. 2006; Kalam & Roy, 2014, 2016; Kalam & Ghosh, 2022). For example, Kalam (2021) found 34.0% marriage were consanguineous among the Darbhangia Khotta Muslim population of Malda district of West Bengal: around 11.0% of marriage among migrant Muslims of Mirzapur village in Balasore district of Odisha. In South India, Kumaramanickavel et al. (2002) also found 28.0% of consanguineous marriage. Sahoo et al. (2022) found district wise variation in the prevalence of consanguineous marriage in South India.
Types of consanguineous marriage
Consanguineous marriage can be classified into first-cousin, second cousin, and uncle-niece marriage, etc. Most common type of consanguineous marriage is first cousin marriage. Sharma et al. (2020) found around 8.6% of marriages was first cousin marriage, followed by 0.7% second-cousin marriage and 0.6% of marriage was uncle-niece marriage. In local, regional level, Metgud et al. (2012) observed that around 52.0% of marriages were contracted marriage between first cousins among the rural women of Belgaum District of Karnataka. Kalam (2021) found around 92.0% of marriage among first cousins among Darbhangia Khotta Muslims of Malda district of West Bengal. Other rare types of consanguineous marriages were first-cousin once removed, double first-cousin, double second cousin (Figure 2a).
When studying anthropology, consanguinity types can take different forms, such as parallel and cross-cousin marriages. Parallel cousins are the children of siblings of the same sex, while cross-cousins are the children of siblings of the opposite sex. On the other hand, consanguineous marriage can be identified based on ego. In patriarchal Indian society male is the ego and consanguinity can be identified as MSD (Mother’s Sister’s Daughter), FBD (Father’s Brother’s Daughter), MBD (Mother’s Brother’s Daughter), FSD (Father’s Sister’s Daughter) (Figure 2b).
Figure 2b: Types of consanguineous marriage based on kinship relation (depending on Ego)
Factors contributing consanguineous marriage
- Socio-demographic factors
Studies found several factors that contributed in the prevalence of consanguineous marriage in India (Banerjee & Roy, 2002, Sharma et al. 2020; Sahoo et al. 2022). Earlier studies found consanguineous marriage significantly higher among the respondents who were married earlier, having lower level of educational attainments, living in rural areas, and economically poorer condition of wealth status (Banerjee & Roy 2002; Sharma et al. 2020).
- Religious factor
Studies found significant differences in the prevalence of consanguineous marriage among religious groups (Banerjee & Roy, 2002; Kuntla et al. 2013; Sharma et al. 2020; Kumari et al. 2020; Sahoo et al. 2022). In India, studies found that consanguineous marriage were two times higher among the Muslims compared to Hindus (Sharma et al. 2020; Kumari et al. 2021). It is a believed among Muslims; cousin marriage could possibly be described as an example provided by the sunnah (practical activity) of the Prophet (Bittles, 2012). It is believed that among six wives of the Prophet, two were biological relatives. He also married his daughter Fatima to his paternal first cousin Ali (Bittles, 2012). On the other hand, among the Hindus of South India, the prevalence of consanguineous marriage was high (Hamamy et al. 2011; Sahoo et al. 2022). Kalam et al. (2020) found the prevalence of consanguineous marriage was around 3.0% among the other religious group i.e., combination of Christianity, Jainism and Buddhism.
- Socio-cultural factors
Consanguinity also significantly influenced by the cultural practice of a community. Several local and community level studies observed that maintaining social cohesion, familial peace, better relationships with in-laws, and economic advantages relating to dowry, seem to be strong contributory factors in the preference for consanguineous unions (Srinivasan & Lee, 2004; Kalam & Roy, 2014; Hamamy et al. 2011). Srinivasan & Lee (2004) observed in Northern province of Indian state Bihar that families who are blood relatives are more likely to support consanguinity, because of the small amount of dowry, as the groom’s parents refrain from making excessive demands due to close blood relation (Srinivasan & Lee, 2004). In such marriages, the bride’s parents can have some say in how the dowry is used, benefiting the newly married couple, instead of only the groom’s family (Srinivasan & Lee, 2004). Social security during old age is an important predictor of consanguineous marriage in India (Kalam, 2021). Consanguinity helps in the maintenance of regular communication between two families having common ancestors. Kalam (2021) found that consanguinity helps in maintenance of familial as well social solidarity among the migrant Darbhangia Khotta Mulims of Malda district of West Bengal. It has also observed that population in community level marry their cousins due to unavailability of same cultural group in migrated place, to maintain cultural identity (Kalam et al. 2020). However, recent study from pan India data argued that consanguineous marriage significantly positively related to the spousal violence in Indian continent (Rahaman et al. 2020), but the scenario might be different in small scale community level studies (Kalam, 2021).
Reproductive consequences of consanguineous marriage
Consanguineous marriage is an important subject matter among the scientist due to its reproductive consequences (Hussain et al. 2001; Banerjee & Roy, 2002; Saggar et al. 2008; Mumtaz et al.2010; Bellad et al. 2011; Kuntla et al. 2013; Fareed et al. 2017).Studies found that there is higher likelihood of pregnancy loss and health defects among the child of consanguineous couples (Banerjee & Roy 2002; Kuntla et al. 2013; Fareed et al. 2017; Islam, 2013; Teeuw et al. 2014; Oniya et al. 2019; Anwar et al. 2020).
- Pregnancy loss or wastage
Using pan Indian data, Banerjee & Roy (2002) explores that consanguinity significantly negatively affects child survivality. Banerjee & Roy (2002) found that stillbirth, neonatal mortality and post neonatal mortality was significantly higher among the close biological relatives. However, there are several exogenous (i.e., socioeconomic, environmental, availability and utilization of health care services) and endogenous (i.e., inbreeding, birth injury, etc) factors that affects mortality (Stockwell et al. 1987; Kalam et al. 2024). Controlling exogenous factors, studies found consanguinity negatively affects child survivals in India (Kuntla et al. 2013; Fareed et al. 2017). Kalam et al. (2024) observed that consanguineous marriage significantly negatively affects stillbirth/spontaneous abortion, neonatal mortality as well as post-neonatal mortality, and distant consanguinity affects more compared to close consanguinity. Das (2006) found that spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, infant mortality was significantly higher among consanguineous couples, whereas the effect was not significant among child and juveniles. In South India, Bellad et al. (2011) found that non-consanguineous marriages had fewer stillbirth and lower rates of miscarriages. Fareed et al. (2017) also found higher mortality rates among the consanguine families than non-consanguine families.
- Fertility
Consanguinity significantly affects the fertility behaviour among the couples. Earlier studies show fertility was significantly higher among consanguineous marriages than non-consanguineous marriage (Hussain & Bittles, 2004; Bharathi, 2014; Jaber & Halpern, 2014). Bharathi (2014) found that fertility was higher among consanguineous couples that non-consanguineous couples among the Khond population of Andhra Pradesh. Kalam (2021) also found higher fertility rate among consanguineous couples those non-consanguineous couples among the Darbhangia Khotta Muslim population of West Bengal. Bittles et al. (2002) significantly concluded from study on thirty population that fertility was higher among consanguineous couples that non-consanguineous couples.
- Medical disorders
Consanguinity if found to be associated with several medical disorder (Kumaramanickavel et al. 2002; Nirmalan et al. 2006; Mamidala et al. 2014; Lakhan et al. 2017). Mamidala et al. (2014) found that consanguinity increases the risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) with an odds ratio of 3.22. Kumaramanickavel et al. (2002) found that consanguinity increases the risk of ophthalmic genetic disorders. Lakhan et al. (2017) explored that intellectual disability was significantly higher among the couples married within biological relation. Bellad et al. (2011) also observed that non-consanguineous marriages show lower incidences of low birth weight among children. It was observed that in consanguineous marriages, there was 0.85%, 0.84%, 1.57% 0.43%, 0.34%, and 0.14% chances of their children and grandchildren developing psychotic disorders, heart disease, hypertension stroke, cancer, and diabetes, respectively (Kundu & Jana 2024). Rauniyar & Das (2022) found that the most common ocular disorders associated with a high proportion of consanguinity were congenital hereditary endothelial dystrophy (CHED) (100%), corneal macular dystrophy (83.78%), xeroderma pigmentosum (80.95%), and ocular albinism (73.59%).
- Congenital malformations
Consanguinity is found to have significantly associated with congenital abnormalities (Amudha et al. 2005; McGregor et al. 2010; Ashraf et al. 2010; Sinha & Singh, 2013). Amudha et al. (2005) found that congenital abnormality is significantly influenced by consanguinity. Sinha & Singh (2013) also found significant association between congenital malformation and consanguineous marriages. Findings from South India reveal that first-cousin marriages and uncle–niece marriages are equally significant in increasing congenital heart diseases (Ramegowda & Ramachandra, 2006). Shamnas et al. (2013) observed that congenital defect often occurs because of consanguinity in Indian population. It was observed that congenital permanent hearing impairment was three times higher in first degree, second degree and two times higher in third degree consanguinity (Selvarajan et al. 2013). Recent study shows around 4.55% of the individuals have a history of birth defects or congenital disorders having history of consanguinity (Kundu & Jana, 2024).
Recent trends in consanguinity
It was observed around the world that consanguineous marriage is declining over the years (Bittles & Black 2012). The practice of consanguineous marriage has decreased over the years (Kalam et al. 2020; Kumari et al. 2020). According to Kalam et al. (2020), using pan-Indian data, consanguineous marriage declined by about sixteen percent in nearly two and a half decades. Improvement in educational opportunities significantly effects in the decline of consanguinity in India (Kumari et al. 2020). Additionally, local community level study shows a generational decline from 33.3% to 12.5% in consanguineous marriage among the Darbhangia Khotta Muslim population of West Bengal (Kalam et al. 2017). Among the Sunni Muslims of West Bengal, an overall declining trend in consanguinity has been observed. There are several reasons cited for the declining prevalence of consanguineous marriage, such as modernization (Goode, 1963), low compatibility among couples (Kalam & Roy, 2014), increased depression among couples (Rao et al. 2009) and exposure of the young generation to the outer world (Kalam, 2021). Consanguineous marriages often lead to family conflicts and social stigma, resulting in the fear of such unions (Kalam, 2021).
Consanguinity and Index of opportunity for selection
Consanguinity is often decreasing the vigour or effectiveness of a population (Wright, 1922). The effectiveness of natural selection in a population can be measured using estimates of differential fertility and differential child mortality which is known as the index of opportunity for selection (Crow, 1958). Lower value of index of total selection intensity shows fewer changes in the genetic makeup of a population (Faredd et al. 2017). Study from Uttar Pradesh, North India shows lower selection intensities among populations of consanguineous groups in comparison with the non-consanguineous ones (Arzoo & Afzal 2006). Among a fishing community of Vigianagram district of Andhra Pradesh, Nahari and Aprna (2005) found higher value of index of opportunity for selection in consanguineous groups that non-consanguineous groups. Rajeswari et al. (2015) found variation in the total selection intensity among two population of Andhra Pradesh. Among the Yadava’s the value of selection intensity was higher in consanguineous couples that non-consanguineous where among the Vadabalija’s, the value of selection intensity was nearly triple in consanguineous couples than non-consanguineous couples (Rajeswari et al. 2015).
Legal regulation in consanguineous marriage
Legislation enacted at the national level often faces challenges in implementation, as demonstrated by the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, which prohibits uncle-niece marriages (Kapadia 1958). Despite this, studies conducted from the 1980s onward in Bangalore and Mysore, the two major cities of Karnataka in southern India, revealed that 21.3% of Hindu marriages involved uncle-niece unions (Bittles et al. 1992). Consanguineous marriages are deeply rooted in the customs of southern India, particularly among communities south of the Narmada River. While the Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 recognized cross-cousin marriages, the legality of uncle-niece unions was later affirmed by the Hindu Code Bill of 1984 (Rao et al. 2002). For Muslims, cousin marriages are permissible under Sharia law. However, a Muslim man is prohibited from marrying specific blood relatives, including his mother, grandmother, daughter, granddaughter, sister, niece, great-niece, aunts, or great-aunts. Marriages are also prohibited with relatives through marriage, such as his wife’s mother or grandmother, wife’s daughter or granddaughter, and his son’s wife, particularly in cases of subsequent marriages. Additionally, foster relationships follow similar restrictions to those applied to blood and marital relations, including foster sisters or daughters of a foster mother.
Concluding remarks
Consanguineous marriage i.e., marriage between close blood relatives, is still practised in many societies, despite its numerous detrimental effects on pregnancy and congenital disorders. Consanguineous marriage has many positive socio-cultural outcomes. It can help maintain solidarity within the community, often promoting peace in the family, reducing the burden of dowry in patriarchal societies, and providing old-age security for in-laws. However, in low-income countries like India, the low literacy rate among rural people leaves them unaware of the negative effects of consanguinity, leading to a preference for consanguineous marriages. Due to their limited understanding, consanguineous couples often attribute pregnancy issues to a higher power, i.e., God, rather than recognizing the negative impact of consanguinity.
The practice of consanguineous marriage has decreased over the years, particularly among the younger generation, reflecting a positive trend towards more diverse and varied relationships. The younger people often migrate to urban areas for higher education or better job opportunities, which might negatively affect the acceptance of cousin marriages. Increasing women’s decision-making power in the twenty-first century may also result in a decrease in consanguineous marriages. However, further research at the community level is crucial to uncovering the socio-cultural impacts of consanguineous marriage and understanding how consanguinity affects family relations.
This review paper explores and assesses the comprehensive knowledge of consanguinity in the twenty-first century. After learning about the harmful effects of close relatives marrying, concerned couples and family members were motivated to seek genetic counselling for a better future, while also involving policy makers.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the anonymous referees for providing insightful comments in the earlier draft of the paper
Financial disclosure and conflict of interest
This research did not receive any specific grant from any funding agency, commercial entity or nor-for-profit organization.
The authors of this paper do not have any conflicts of interest.
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Received: August 16th, 2024;
Accepted: December 20th, 2024 ;
Online first: December 22nd, 2024;
Published: July 15th, 2025.
Copyright: © 2024 Kalam & Pal. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
